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... had before, they also had the unintended effects of expanding citizens’ rights. Up until this time commoners had to seek permission from the local lord to marry, travel, set up a business, etc., and each locality could have wildly differing standards on what it would permit. Once all of these "liberties" came under central control, nationwide standards provided a generally more permissive and certainly more efficient set of rules by which to live and work. This came as a breath of fresh air, lifting some of the dire pessimism of the previous decades.

These changes occur at the same time that the Church of Rome is struggling with the effects of the Protestant reformation and Copernican astronomy. The Counter-Reformation and the idea of an infinite universe with us not at its center leads both to an explosion of expansive art and personal expression and the fear that where one stands on any issue might need to change depending on which way the political winds blow.

Fashion/Manners – The early part of this period is called "cavalier", from the French word for "horseman", with good reason. The male ideal shifts from being a royal household courtier, decked in his court finery appropriate to his status, to being a robust adventurer, wearing clothing suitable for any occasion, indoor or out. Male movement becomes freer, the emphasis now on having a natural athletic swagger. Regular pants, practical boots and comfortable shirts and jackets allowed for a less restrained manner than the tortured costumes of the "mannerist" Elizabethan period. A man now strides into a room confidently. Gloves were worn for most occasions, and rarely removed. The courtly bow also is freer, performed with abandon. As the cavalier leaves his right foot forward and right leg straight, he steps back with his left foot and bends the left knee slightly while doffing his hat in a grand sweep. To add to the flow, he can comfortably bend at the waist and lower his head, and then dramatically sweep back up in a grand gesture. Indeed, great personal variation for the bow was acceptable, as it demonstrated the person’s sense of flair and grace. The hat was returned to the head at the completion of the bow, and it is normal to keep the hat on during all occasions. With a fine plume sprouting from the brim, the hat added to the look of no longer being diminished by the world, but ready to conquer it. A man might sit sideways or even backwards on a chair, and in all circumstances giving the impression that no chair, room, or even world can contain him, for if the universe is infinite, why then so is he.

Not all of these outward changes were based on practical considerations. The high-topped cavalry boots were merely copies of what soldiers were wearing to protect their legs from pistol shots when riding in battle, and were certainly not the most comfortable things to walk around in, especially when the tops would start to sink down to the calves. But they gave a romantic look and even more swagger when walking, so civilians quickly appropriated them. In all, the people of the period reveled in a new world of extravagance and sensuality, of brilliance and exuberance.

Naturally, as the epoch progressed the free and relaxed stances of the cavalier turned into the carefully copied poses of the baroque. In the later portion of the century what had been free of affectation became strict rules of social conduct. In doffing the hat, if was gracefully lifted and then swept down to the right side, no longer across the body. A hat once doffed could not be returned to the head unless granted permission by a superior, and to fail to give permission was just as serious a breech of protocol. No one was allowed to keep the head covered in the presence of the king. The athletic stances became regimented into the ballet positions we know today, with the feet turned out at ninety degrees during every step, the ball of the foot landing before the heel. As most men wore heels, this required a strong pointing of the foot at each step.

In large social occasions, or when passing people on the street, a bow en passant allowed for courtesy to be extended without having to stop for conversation. It was a simple bow from the waist while allowing the back ...